何锡蓉《Buddhism and metaphysics》

Introduction

 

Whether there is metaphysics in Buddhism? Does Buddhism is a kind of philosophy or only a religion? It is still no united understanding apparently in both fields of Buddhism and philosophy. Such as a dialogue between Jean-Francois Revel, a French contemporary thinker and an academician, and his son, Matthieu Richard, who converted to Buddhism, they are representatives each of west thoughts and Buddhist thoughts. They published a book named the dialogue between a monk, Buddhism, and a philosopher, the western thought. It said that "People debate endlessly for that Buddhism is a religion or a philosophy but the problem has never been settled. In the west, philosophy is a simple branch of knowledge like mathematics or botanies. The philosopher is a ‘teacher', is usually a professor, he studies certain theory in his course, but once he return to his home, be completely like a notary or a dentist, the theory he taught has no affected slightly his behavior in his lives. But professors in the east, they are spiritual teachers whose living are according to the theory they taught. And there are a group of students around professors and would like in the wake of them. The east professor’s theory is not a pure intelligent curiosity but it must pass his own practice and then it can be valuable."^[i] Again as we know, in ancient history there is a process that Buddhism with Chinese philosophy and Chinese culture melted mutually. In the whole ancient times there were no doubts about whether Buddhism is a philosophy or not, in fact Buddhism has become an important part of constitutions in Chinese philosophy. However in the modern age, whether Buddhism is a philosophy or not has been a debatable focus in academic circles. Master Tai Xu, a famous rabbi in modern China, said “people usually didn’t think it was necessary to research whether Buddhism is a philosophy or a non- philosophy. But since there have been some persons who want to investigate occult something, and want to search for intelligent lights from secret and vague mind, and want to look for the riddle of the cosmos, the question of whether Buddhist doctrines is philosophy hence was put forward. Now the debates are going on in the academic circles, and each keeps its own theory to estimate Buddhism. Such as Ouyang Jingwu, a famous monk at home in modern China, took Buddhism as nonreligious and non-philosophy; Zhang Taiyan, a famous philosopher and a monk at home in modern China, then said Buddhism is a philosophy; Liang Shuming, a famous professor in Beijing University, also had a same idea with Zhang Taiyan. Who was ever right was a problem.”^[ii] As well as we ever visited India at the end of 1999, in the conference on Buddhism some Indian scholars also discussed whether Buddhism is philosophy. Some one denied, and some one affirmed; though some one admitted Buddhism is a kind of philosophy, but it’s no united standpoints for whether there are metaphysical factors in this philosophy. Some one who affirmed there are certain metaphysical factors in Buddhism have different views (including affirmative and negative view) to whether this metaphysics in Buddhism is like the western metaphysics.

The reason that the problem produced is because of the introduction of western culture. Being affected by the western philosophy, people took the ideas and frames of the western philosophy to contrast Indian philosophy in consciously or unconsciously. Just like in China, since the idea of “philosophy” was been introduced into China, with the Chinese understand western philosophy deeper, the question of whether Chinese philosophy is legality arose. It actually doubted whether there is a philosophy or metaphysics same to the western in China. For making this problem clear, we need to know what is metaphysics firstly since metaphysics is the core of philosophy, indeed whether there is metaphysics or no is the standard which measures the character of philosophy.

 

What Is Metaphysics？

 

1. The metaphysics is a core of philosophy. In the west, it was from a book written by Aristotle named metaphysics, meaning of After Physics. According to Aristotle, philosophy (including be called metaphysics by later generations and all natural sciences such as physics etc. and physics is to study the science which are entities appreciable. It is "the second philosophy"; Metaphysics then studies things beyond sensitivity such as material, form, potential, movement...etc. as well as supernatural things such as absolute being, the first pusher etc. Because the main object of metaphysics studied is the most basic thing so it is "the first philosophy". Thus Meditations on First Philosophy written by Descartes also named Meditations on Metaphysics. Aristotle once imaginatively divided mankind's knowledge into three parts, making the parable with a big tree: the first part which is the most basal part is the root, metaphysics. It is the foundation of all knowledge. The second part is a physics which is just like the tree trunk. And the third part is other natural sciences which are parable with the tree branch. So we can say that Metaphysics is the core of the western philosophy which had held a dominate status for more than two thousand years. Though it was “finished” at Hegel It has declined rapidly since then. But its profound influence is still in effect. In all 20th century the western philosophy fought with metaphysics, but it seems that this war have no evidence to end thoroughly because metaphysics is much more than only a history and is also an actuality, it deeply influences our mode of thinking and cultural factors even it exists the ways of human life.

 

2. The metaphysics is to pursue universal knowledge. Aristotle considered that philosophy should be “the superlative degree universal knowledge”. He said "erudite characteristic must belong to the persons who have the tallest universal knowledge; if there is a thing can not be knew, it is not universal. And that the most universal is the most difficult to know by people since these knowledge are the farthest from human being’s senses.”^[iii] Metaphysics is as the result of pursuing the universal knowledge.

 

3. The metaphysics is to transcend in empirical. Related with above, since metaphysics is to pursue the universal knowledge then this knowledge is surely not empirical. Kant said, "First, as concerns the sources of metaphysical knowledge, its very concept implies that they cannot be empirical. Its principles (including not only its maxims but its basic notions) must never be derived from experience. It must not be physical but metaphysical knowledge, namely, knowledge lying beyond experience. It can therefore have for its basis neither external experience, which is the source of physics proper, nor internal, which is the basis of empirical psychology. It is therefore a priori knowledge, coming from pure understanding and pure reason.”^[iv]

Namely, the knowledge of metaphysics is not research changeful things like physics or natural philosophies, but with that kind of immovable and super feeling of, and beyond empirical things.

 

4. Are there other types of metaphysics? It described the western traditional metaphysics above, but one will ask that is there only this type of metaphysics? If so, with this metaphysics check others, that any not same to it is thought no metaphysics. Since metaphysics is the core of philosophy then no philosophy obviously. With regard to metaphysics being the core of philosophy, we should say that there is surely philosophy in China because it is a fact. Then it surely has its metaphysics as the core of philosophy though it is different from the western philosophy and metaphysics. Talk about metaphysics, we Chinese will think of Dao (Tao) immediately since we translated metaphysics from the appended remarks of the Book of Changes, it was in more than two thousand ago, which is "what exists before physical form is called Dao, what exists after physical form is called a Qi (a concrete thing).”^[v] The meaning is that, Dao is same to metaphysics which has no forms and impalpable; Qi (concrete thing) has its form and appreciable.

Namely, the Dao is metaphysics. The doctrine of Dao is rich and deep, which is prominent no matter what in the aspect of loving wisdom or in the aspect of inclusion. As for the treatise of Dao is the quintessence of Chinese learning, as well as main basis for Chinese philosophy as a philosophy.

So, pursuing the state of beyond form was the emphases of Chinese traditional philosophy. It emphasized the transformation of methods that human being contact with outside things. It’s an uplifted route from contacting with Qi (a concrete) to Dao, so it was called “exists after physical form”. It (exists after physical form) described human being’s transcend activities and pursuits. The significance of this transcend pursuit is that people expect to get the experience of gaining Dao on this uplifted route. The history of Chinese philosophy was expanding which pursued to Dao. So, Chinese philosophy is not only a theory but or even more practice. Theory is to describe, to introspect, and to guide practice. But the aim of philosophy does not rest on only to know what natural exhibitory process of the world, but take oneself into it, and to awake that oneself is exhibited from the nature. It should be the reason that people want to gain Dao. In Chinese ancient philosophy, there were the discussions about human nature and response between nature and man, which concerned the reason that person should gained Dao and the basis that human achieve wisdom; and there were the original experience about the nature and man united as one, and some exchanges about one’s cultivation, which is that people adjusts his state of existence so as to achieve wisdom. The core of Confucian doctrine was “benevolence”, it stress on pursuing Dao in the social life.

Seeing from various descriptions, that so-called achieve Dao is to reach a self-conscious existent state, sages are the model that entered to the state of reached Dao from each different living realm.

One of the main characteristics of the western metaphysics is transcendence which transcends in empirical. Though there is no the word of “transcendence” in Chinese philosophical text but we can say when people pursue Dao he (she) needs to change his (her) own living state, which is truly a process for transcendence. What Chinese traditional philosophy paid attention to was the activities of transcendence. However the objects of transcendence were thought much of by the western philosophy. It seems that these two kinds of transcendence irrelevant each other, but in fact they are in the outside and the inside mutually. This exploration showed common origination of the Chinese and the western philosophy. The western traditional metaphysics was the theory that transcends the time and space as well as experience. It mainly means that being a kind of theories, it transcends the sensitive realm and it was held by conceptual thoughts. Chinese “metaphysics” (exists before physical form) was also transcendence, but this transcendence means human being’s own state, namely human being experience a process that adjusts oneself from the state of contacting with Qi (a concrete ) to Dao (ideal state). In a word, what the metaphysics of western metaphysics meant the properties of theories and learning; The " metaphysics" (exists before physical form) in Chinese philosophy was human being to transform oneself existent way to correspond with Dao, which was not been held by thought but needed to experience by practice personally. We can not deny that the type of Chinese “metaphysics” is not metaphysics or not philosophy. Paying attention to practice and experience also is a characteristic of Buddhist metaphysics and philosophy.

 

There is no metaphysics as the western way in Buddhism

 

1. Buddhism denied that so called "the first cause of creation"The original doctrines of Buddhism pointed out that all things in the world are produced by predestined relationship (karma), it will not be existence if the karma and the conditions left. Therefore, Buddha took the theory of arising from conditional causation to explain how cosmos and mankind’s birth and death are continuous recurrently. He didn’t believe that there is a creator who creates the world and be sovereign. Buddha had told his disciples that didn’t debate on various issues of metaphysics, and he claimed that "people should not say any word in the things that could not be known." "The idea of the creator also is a supposition which can't be proved by logic, so we should pay no attention to it."^[vi] Buddha was the first person who advanced the ideas of the four dogmas (suffering, aggregation, extinction, way) and the twelve nidanas (ignorance, action, consciousness, name and form, the six sense organs, feeling, desire, grasping, have, birth, old and death). Then he found out the reason of people suffering consists that people don’t know that all things are impermanent, and no individual independent existence. This is the truth that lays claim to the life and should look for in the life only, but shouldn't in time of look for in the thing out of the life realm. Only understanding the nature of human being can he (she) be released. It means that one want to search the truth of life merely in the life, but should not search it outside.

In addtion to search for the truth in life, Buddhism still claim to search from one’s inner mind. Yoga is an example. The method of Yoga links together with some special practices, it mainly is to sit upright as the statue of Buddha and look at the navel and nose. Actually, the philosophy of Yoga is without end at these methods. It is according to the mental idea and clams that train intellect properly in order to reach higher conscious level. "The whole preachments of the Buddha did not take any authority of religion, also having no concerning God or the words of another world. He required people to search for the truth from oneself’s mind."^[vii]

 

 2, The philosophy of Buddhism is not transcendent in empirical. Even the theory of "sunya" is not empty or nothingness, in fact it is on the contrary for nothingness. It is "widespread possibility" including cosmos, the whole existence, movement and conciousness. If the ultimate foundation is not sunya all explicit manifestations can not be produced. So it said in sutra that since get sunya, everything can exist then. Namely, Sunya itself has all possibities and these may be interdependent. It is to say that sunya transcendent material world on the one hand, because it trascends all concepts about existence and nonexistence, appearance and termination, movement and immobility, single and numerous etc., and in another hand, the realized of sunya is not through analysis of thought, but by people’s practice since sunya exists in all things. "Metaphysics developped in the philosophy of Buddhism, however the method it took was on psychological comprehension as a basis."^[viii] "It (Buddhism) emphasizes that ethics relationg has its affirmative values in our limited world. Theresore we should stand by ethical and good life in our living world and in relationship of our mankind. We can and should apply our rational, knowledge and experience to this living, for this phenomenal world. As for infinity or in despite of what name called in future, it is transcendent outside of the land of the living, and any rational, knowledge and experience can not be applied."^[ix]

 

3, Buddhism identifies concrete problems and solve the problems with concrete methods. Theoretically speaking, pure philosophical metaphysics was lain on by Buddhism. Buddha taught his discipes in accordance of their aptitute and conditons. He was a teacher who drived for actually efficiency, he was full for mercy and wisdom. He answared questions not for playing the peacock, but for helping askers to go to the the wise and conscious road.

Based on Buddha’s remark, there were four kinds of method to take on questions: there are, 1) when questions are more direct, obvious, and avoided metaphysics, these questions must be replied simply and directly, such as what is the cause of suffering. 2) Some questions must be solved in analytical way, for example, whether Buddhiam is mentalism or materialism. 3) There are other questions must be replied by the way of rhethorical-question. 4) There are some questions must be kept silent not reply, for example, when someone asks Buddha about the questions of metaphysics Buddha often kept silence.

　 The Relation on Metaphysics

Between Buddhist Philosophy and Chinese Philosophy

 

Because Buddhism and Chinese philosophy both belong to orient learning, they have some communications, so when Buddhism was introduced into China and it can be accept by Chinese, can melt with Chinese philosophy mutually. Liang Qichao, a famous Chinese thinker in modern China, said that Buddhism is different from the western Christianity that there are two sides including religion and philosophy in Buddhism. Knowing Dao (Buddha) is by consciousness, and the method of entering Dao is by wisdom, the way of cultivating oneself according to oneself. The philosophy of Buddhism was the most suitable to assist with Chinese original philosophy. He said that Chinese philosophy research more human life and matters of country, but rare research the principles of everything on heaven and earth.^[x] There was not too much consciousness of religious in Chinese. Therefore, Chinese accepted Buddhism mainly in its theories, namely its philosophy and metaphysics.  

The "metaphysics" (exists before physical form）in Chinese philosophy